Early History of the Gujarat State: Ties to the Maharashtra State. The majority of Gujarati-language speakers in India are located in the Gujarat State, which was not formed as an independent state until 1960. Gujarat no itihas gujarati ma, gujarat no itihas mcq pdf, indian history book in gujarati language,liberty books gujarati pdf free download, indian history in gujarati pdf, gujarat history book in gujarati, reasoning in gujarati pdf, indian history books in gujarati pdf, maru gujarat study material.
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The history of Gujarat began with Stone Age settlements followed by Chalcolithic and Bronze Age settlements like Indus Valley Civilisation.[1]Gujarat's coastal cities, chiefly Bharuch, served as ports and trading centers in the Nanda, Maurya, Satavahana and Gupta empires as well as Western Kshatrapas period. After the fall of the Gupta empire in the 6th century, Gujarat flourished as an independent Hindu/Buddhist state. The Maitraka dynasty, descended from a Gupta general, ruled from the 6th to the 8th centuries from their capital at Vallabhi, although they were ruled briefly by Harsha during the 7th century. The Arab rulers of Sindh sacked Vallabhi in 770, bringing the Maitraka dynasty to an end. The Gurjara-Pratihara Empire ruled Gujarat after from the 8th to 10th centuries. As well as, for some periods the region came under the control of Rashtrakuta Empire and Pala Empire. In 775 the first Parsi (Zoroastrian) refugees arrived in Gujarat from Greater Iran.[2]
During the 10th century, the native Chaulukya dynasty came to power. From 1297 to 1300, Alauddin Khalji, the TurkicSultan of Delhi, destroyed Anhilwara and incorporated Gujarat into the Delhi Sultanate. After Timur's sacking of Delhi at the end of the 14th century weakened the Sultanate, Gujarat's governor Zafar Khan Muzaffar asserted his independence, and his son, Sultan Ahmad Shah I (ruled 1411 to 1442), restructured Ahmedabad as the capital. The Sultanate of Gujarat remained independent until 1576, when the Mughal emperor Akbar conquered it and annexed it to the Mughal Empire as a province. Surat had become the prominent and main port of India during Mughal rule.
Later in the 18th century, Gujarat came under control of the Maratha Empire who dominated the politics of India. The British East India Company wrested control of much of Gujarat from the Marathas during the Second Anglo-Maratha War. Many local rulers, notably the Gaekwads of Baroda, made a separate peace with the British and acknowledged British sovereignty in return for retaining local self-rule. Gujarat was placed under the political authority of the Bombay Presidency, with the exception of Baroda state, which had a direct relationship with the Governor-General of India. From 1818 to 1947, most of present-day Gujarat, including Kathiawar, Kutch, and northern and eastern Gujarat were divided into hundreds of princely states, but several districts in central and southern Gujarat were ruled directly by British officials. Mohandas Gandhi, considered India's 'father of the nation', was a Gujarati who led the Indian Independence Movement against the British colonial rule.[3]
Gujarat was formed by splitting Bombay state in 1960 on linguistic lines. From 1960 to 1995, Indian National Congress retained power in Gujarat Legislative Assembly while other political parties ruled for incomplete terms in the 1970s and 1990. Bharatiya Janata Party has been in the power since 1998.
- 3Iron Age (1500-200 BCE)
- 3.1Early Historic
- 4Middle Kingdoms (230 BCE - 1206 CE)
- 5Late Medieval period (1206-1526 CE)
- 6Early modern period (1526–1858 CE)
- 7Colonial period (1819–1947 CE)
- 8Post-Independence (1947 CE - present)
- 9References
Stone Age (before 4000 BCE)[edit]
The cultural history of Gujarat begins from the Middle Pleistocene. The lands of Gujarat has been continuously inhabited from the Lower Paleolithic (c. 200,000 BP) period. Several sites of stone age are discovered in riverbeds of Sabarmati, Mahi river and lower Narmada rivers of Gujarat.[4][5]
The Middle Paleolithic sites are found from Kutch, Jamnagar, Panchmahals, Hiran valley in Saurashtra and Vapi and Lavacha of Valsad district. The Upper Paleolithic period sites from Visadi, Panchmahals, Bhamaria, Kantali, Palanpur and Vavri are also explored.[4] The Middle (c.45,000–25,000 BP) and Late Palaeolithic artifacts include hand-axes, cleavers, chopping tools, borers, points, and scrapers.[6] The sites in Kutch and Bhadar riverbeds in Saurashtra has also yielded stone age tools. Bhandarpur near Orsang valley is rich in Palaeolithic tools. Some of other such sites are Hirpura, Derol, Kapadvanj, Langhnaj and Shamlaji.[7]
More than 700 sites are located in Gujarat which indicate Mesolithic/Microlithic using communities dated to 7000 BC to 2000 BC divided in Pre-Chalcolithic and Chalcolithic period.[8] Some Mesolithic sites include Langhnaj, Kanewal, Tarsang, Dhansura, Loteshwar, Santhli, Datrana, Moti Pipli and Ambakut. The people of the Mesolithic period were nomadic hunter-gathers with some managing the herds of sheep-goat and cattle.[4][9]Neolithic tools are found at Langhnaj in north Gujarat.[10]
Chalcolithic to Bronze Age (4000 BC–1300 BCE)[edit]
An ancient well at Lothal, and the city drainage canals.
Total 755 chalcolithic settlements are discovered in Gujarat belonging to various traditions and cultures which ranged from 3700 BCE to 900 BCE. Total 59 of these sites are excavated while others are studied from artifacts. These traditions are closely associated with Harappan civillization and difference between them is identified by difference in ceramics and findings of microliths. These traditions and cultures include Anarta Tradition (c. 3950–1900 BC), Padri Ware (3600–2000 BC), Pre-Prabhas Assemblage (3200–2600 BC), Pre Urban Harappan Sindh Type Pottery (Burial Pottery) (3000–2600 BC), Black and Red Ware (3950–900 BC), Reserved Slip Ware (3950–1900 BC), Micaceous Red Ware (2600–1600 BC). Prabhas Assemblage (2200–1700 BC) and Lustrous Red Ware (1900–1300 BC) are some late material cultures. The few sites associated with Malwa Ware and Jorwe Ware are also found.[8]
Gujarat has large number of the archaeological sites associated with Indus Valley Civilization. Total 561 Classical Harappan (2600–1900 BC) and Sorath Harappan (2600–1700 BC) sites are reported in Gujarat.[8] The sites in Kutch, namely, Surkotada, Desalpur, Pabumath and Dholavira are some major sites of Urban period. The sites of the post-Urban period include Lothal B, Rangpur IIC and III, Rojdi C, Kuntasi, Vagad I B, Surkotada 1C, Dholavira VI &VII.[4]
Iron Age (1500-200 BCE)[edit]
At several sites the post-Harappan culture continued. Pastoralism was also widespread and served as trade-links between sites.[11][12] These cultures are associated with rise of Mahajanapadas.
There is an insufficient archeological data for transition to the Early Historic period. This Vedic period is referenced with Vedic and Puranic sources. According to both legends and tradition, the Yadavas under Krishna inhabited of the Saurashtra peninsula of Gujarat before it came under the Mauryas. But there is no archaeological and historical evidence to prove this. There are some evidences of occupation prior to 400 BC from Dwarka, Nagara and Prabhas Patan.[4]Bharuch was the major port town of Iron Age.[13]
Early Historic[edit]
The Early Historic material culture of Gujarat include the presence of Northern Black Polished Ware, continued dominance of Black-and-Red Ware, slow introduction and later domination of Red Polished Ware, occurrence of Roman Amphorae, Rang Mahal Ware (100–300), introduction of glass and lead, followed by gradual conquest of Iron, an agriculture-based economy, shell industry, development of script, rise of the urban settlements, brick structural remains, monumental buildings, international trade and development of Jainism, Buddhism, and Vaishnavism.[4]
The excavated sites of the Early Historic period include Dhatva, Jokha, Kamrej, Karvan, Bharuch, Nagal, Timbarva, Akota from South Gujarat; Nagara from central Gujarat; Vadnagar, Shamlaji, Devnimori from north Gujarat and Amreli, Vallabhi, Prabhas Patan, Padri and Dwarka from Saurashtra.[4]
Mauryas[edit]
Gop Temple, Maitraka period.
Early Gujarat (BC 250 to 1300 AD)
Coin of the Gujuras of Sindh, Chavda dynasty, circa 570–712 CE. Crowned Sasanian-style bust right / Fire altar with ribbons and attendants; star and crescent flanking flames.[14]
Chandragupta Maurya of Maurya dynasty conquered a number of earlier states of Gujarat circa 300 BC. Pushyagupta, a Vaishya, was appointed Governor of Saurashtra by the Mauryan regime. He ruled (322 BC to 294 BC) Girinagar (present Junagadh) and built a dam on the Sudarshan lake. Emperor Ashoka, the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, not only ordered engraving of his famous edicts on the rock at Junagadh, but asked his Governor Tusherpha to take out canals from the lake where an earlier Mauryan Governor had built a dam. Between the decline of the Mauryan power and Saurashtra coming under the sway of Samprati Mauryas of Ujjain, there was a Greek incursion into Gujarat led by Demetrius. In the first half of the first century A.D. there is the story of a merchant of King Gondaphares landing in Gujarat with Apostle Thomas.The incident of the cup-bearer killed by a lion might indicate that the port city described is in Gujarat.[15][16]
Indo-scythians[edit]
For nearly 300 years from the start of the 1st century AD, Saka rulers played a prominent part in Gujarat's history. Weather-beaten rock at Junagadh gives a glimpse of the Ruler Rudradaman I (100 AD) of the Saka satraps known as Western Satraps, or Kshatraps. Mahakshatrap Rudradaman I founded the Kardamaka dynasty which ruled from Anupa on the banks of the Narmada up to Aparanta region which bordered Punjab. In Gujarat several battles were fought between the south Indian Satavahana dynasty and the Western Satraps.The greatest ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni who defeated the Western Satraps and conquered some parts of Gujarat in the 2nd century CE[17]
Middle Kingdoms (230 BCE - 1206 CE)[edit]
Guptas and Maitrakas[edit]
The Kshatrapa dynasty was replaced by the Gupta reign with the conquest of Gujarat by Chandragupta Vikramaditya. Vikramaditya's successor Skandagupta has left an inscription (450 AD) on a rock at Junagadh which gives details of the repairs of the embankment, damaged by floods, of Sudarshan lake by his Governor. Anarta and Saurashtra regions were both part of the Gupta empire. Towards the middle of the 5th century the Gupta empire started to decline. Senapati Bhatarka, the Maitraka general of the Guptas, took advantage of the situation and in 470 AD he set up what came to be known as the Maitraka state. He shifted his capital from Giringer to Valabhipur, near Bhavnagar, on Saurashtra's east coast. Maitrakas of Vallabhi became very powerful and their rule prevailed over large parts of Gujarat and even over adjoining Malwa. Maitrakas set up a university which came to be known far and wide for its scholastic pursuits and was compared with the famous Nalanda university. It was during the rule of Dhruvasena Maitrak that Chinese philosopher-traveler Xuanzang visited in 640 AD.
Gurjara-Pratihara Empire[edit]
Rani ki Vav (The Queen's stepwell) at Patan was built in the 11th century.[18]
In the early 8th century some parts of Gujarat was ruled by the south Indian Chalukya dynasty. In the early 8th century the Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate established an Empire which stretched from Spain in the west to Afghanistan and Pakistan in the east. The Arab rulers tried to expand their Empire in the 8th century and invaded Gujarat but the Arab invaders were defeated by the Chalukya general Pulakeshin. After this victory the Arab invaders were driven out of Gujarat. Pulakeshin received the title Avanijanashraya (refuge of the people of the earth) by Vikramaditya II for the protection of Gujarat. In the late 8th century the Kannauj Triangle period started. The 3 major Indian dynasties the northwest Indian Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, the south Indian Rashtrakuta Dynasty and the east Indian Pala Empire dominated India from the 8th to 10th century. During this period the northern part of Gujarat was ruled by the north Indian Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty and the southern part of Gujarat was ruled by the south Indian Rashtrakuta Dynasty.[19] Southern Gujarat was ruled by the south Indian Rashtrakuta dynasty until it was captured by the south Indian ruler Tailapa II of the Western Chalukya Empire.[20]
Chaulukya Kingdom[edit]
Taranga Jain Temple constructed by Kumarapala (1143 – 1172 CE)
The Chaulukya dynasty[note 1][21] ruled Gujarat from c. 960 to 1243. Gujarat was a major center of Indian Ocean trade, and their capital at Anhilwara (Patan) was one of the largest cities in India, with population estimated at 100,000 in the year 1000. In 1026, the famous Somnath temple in Gujarat was destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni. After 1243, the Chaulukyas lost control of Gujarat to their feudatories, of whom the Vaghela chiefs of Dholka came to dominate Gujarat. In 1292 the Vaghelas became tributaries of the Yadava dynasty of Devagiri in the Deccan. Karna of the Vaghela dynasty was the last Hindu ruler of Gujarat. He was defeated and overthrown by the superior forces of Alauddin Khalji from Delhi in 1297. With his defeat Gujarat not only became part of the Muslim empire but the Rajput hold over Gujarat lost forever.
Late Medieval period (1206-1526 CE)[edit]
Delhi Sultanate (1298–1407 CE)[edit]
Before 1300, Muslims had little presence in Gujarat. The occasional was mainly either as sea-farers or traders coming from Arabian Sea. They were allowed to establish two small settlements in Cambay (now Khambhat) and Bharuch. Gujarat finally fell under Delhi Sultanate following repeated expeditions under Alauddin Khalji around the end of the 13th century. He ended the rule of Vaghela dynasty under Karna II and established Muslim rule in Gujarat. Soon the Tughluq dynasty came to power in Delhi whose emperor carried out expeditions to quell rebellion in Gujarat and established their firm control over the region by the end of the century.[22]
Gujarat Sultanate (1407–1535 CE)[edit]
Jama Masjid, Ahmedabad.[23]
Following Timur's invasion of Delhi, the Delhi Sultanate weakened considerably so the last Tughluq governor Zafar Khan declared himself independent in 1407 and formally established Gujarat Sultanate. The next sultan, his grandson Ahmad Shah I founded the new capital Ahmedabad in 1411. The prosperity of the sultanate reached its zenith during the rule of Mahmud Begada. He subdued most of the Rajput chieftains and built navy off the coast of Diu. In 1509, the Portuguese wrested Diu from Gujarat sultanate following the Battle of Diu (1509). Mughal emperor Humayun attacked Gujarat in 1535 and thereafter Bahadur Shah was killed by the Portuguese while making a deal in 1537. The decline of the Sultanate started with the assassination of Sikandar Shah in 1526. The end of the sultanate came in 1573, when Akbar annexed Gujarat in his empire. The last ruler Muzaffar Shah III was taken prisoner to Agra. In 1583, he escaped from the prison and with the help of the nobles succeeded to regain the throne for a short period before being defeated by Akbar's general Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana.[24]
Early modern period (1526–1858 CE)[edit]
Mughal Empire (1535–1756)[edit]
Flight of Sultan Bahadur during Humayun's campaign in Gujarat, 1535. Folio from an Akbarnama (History of Akbar), c. 1590.
Under Akbar the Great (1542–1605), Gujarat became the province (subah) of the Mughal Empire governed by the viceroys and officers appointed by the Mughal emperors from Delhi. Akbar's foster brother Mirza Aziz Kokaltash was appointed as the viceroy who strengthened Mughal hold over the region. The nobles of former Sultanate continued to resist and rebel during the reign of the next emperor Jahangir (1605–1627) but Kokaltash and his successor viceroys subdued them. Jahangir also permitted the British East India Company to establish factories in Surat and elsewhere in Gujarat. The next emperor Shah Jahan (1627–1658) expanded his territories in south and his viceroys made hold over Kathiawar peninsula including Nawanagar. Shah Jahan had also appointed his prince Aurangzeb, who was involved in religious disputes, prince Dara Shikoh and later prince Murad Bakhsh as viceroys. Following battle of succession, Aurangzeb (1658–1707) came to the Mughal throne and his policies resulted in revolts and discontent. His prince Muhammad Azam Shah also served as a viceroy.[25]
During the next three emperors (1707–1719) who had brief reigns, the nobles became more and more powerful due to instability in the Delhi. The royals of Marwar were appointed viceroys frequently. During the reign of the emperor Muhammad Shah (1719–1748), the struggle between the Mughal and Maratha nobles were heightened with frequent battles and incursions. The south Gujarat was lost to the Marathas and the towns in north and central Gujarat was attacked on several occasions with frequent demand of tributes. The Marathas continued to grow their hold and the frequent change of viceroys did not reverse the trend. The competing houses of Marathas, Gaikwars and Peshwas engaged between themselves which slow down their progress for a while. They later made peace between themselves. Download lagu yui goodbye days acoustic mp3. During the reign of the next emperor Ahmad Shah Bahadur (1748–1754), there was nominal control over the nobles who acted on their own. There were frequent fights between themselves and with Marathas. Ahmedabad, the capital of province, fell to the Marathas in 1752. It was regained by noble Momin Khan for a short time but again lost to the Marathas in 1756 after a long siege. Finding opportunity, the British captured Surat in 1759. After a setback at Panipat in 1761, the Marathas strengthened their hold on Gujarat. During this fifty years, the power struggle between the Mughal nobles and Marathas caused disorder and the decline in prosperity.[25]
Maratha Empire (1756–1819)[edit]
When the cracks had started to develop in the edifice of the Mughal empire in the mid-17th century, the Marathas were consolidating their power in the west, Chatrapati Shivaji, the great Maratha ruler, attacked Surat twice first in 1664 and again in 1672. These attacks marked the entry of the Marathas into Gujarat. However, before the Maratha inroads into Gujarat, the Europeans had made their presence felt, with the Portuguese leading them, followed by the Dutch and the English.
The Peshwas had established their sovereignty over Gujarat including Saurashtra, and collected taxes and tributes through their representatives. Damaji Gaekwad and Kadam Bande divided the Peshwa's territory between them, with Damaji establishing the sway of Gaekwad over Gujarat and made Baroda (present-day Vadodara) his capital. The ensuing internecine war among the Marathas were fully exploited by the British, who interfered in the affairs of both Gaekwads and the Peshwas.
The British also embarked upon their policy of Subsidiary Alliance. With this policy they established their paramountcy over one princely state after another. Anandrao Gaekwad joined the Alliance in 1802 and surrendered Surat and adjoining territories to the British. In the garb of helping the Marathas, the British helped themselves, and gradually the Marathas' power came to an end, in 1819 in Gujarat. Gaekwad and other big and small rulers accepted the British Paramountcy.[26]
Colonial period (1819–1947 CE)[edit]
Map of Gujarat, 1866
Princely states of Gujarat in 1924
In the 1600s, the Dutch, French, English and Portuguese all established bases along the western coast of the region. Portugal was the first European power to arrive in Gujarat, and after the Battle of Diu and Treaty of Bassein, acquired several enclaves along the Gujarati coast, including Daman and Diu as well as Dadra and Nagar Haveli. These enclaves were administered by Portuguese India under a single union territory for over 450 years, only to be later incorporated into the Republic of India on 19 December 1961 by military conquest.
The British East India Company established a factory in Surat in 1614 following the commercial treaty made with Mughal Emperor Nuruddin Salim Jahangir, which formed their first base in India, but it was eclipsed by Bombay after the English received it from Portugal in 1668 as part of the marriage treaty of Charles II of England and Catherine of Braganza, daughter of King John IV of Portugal. The state was an early point of contact with the west, and the first British commercial outpost in India was in Gujarat.[27]
Bombay Presidency in 1909, northern portion
17th-century French explorer François Pyrard de Laval, who is remembered for his 10-year sojourn in South Asia, bears witness accounts that the Gujaratis were always prepared to learn workmanship from the Portuguese, also in turn imparting skills to the Portuguese:[28]
I have never seen men of wit so fine and polished as are these Indians: they have nothing barbarous or savage about them, as we are apt to suppose. They are unwilling indeed to adopt the manners and customs of the Portuguese; yet do they regularly learn their manufactures and workmanship, being all very curious and desirous of learning. In fact, the Portuguese take and learn more from them than they from the Portuguese.
Later in the 17th century, Gujarat came under control of the Maratha Empire that rose defeating the Mughals and who dominated the politics of India. Most notably, from 1705 to 1716, SenapatiKhanderao Dabhade led the Maratha Empire forces in Baroda. Pilaji Gaekwad, first ruler of Gaekwad dynasty, established the control over Baroda and other parts of Gujarat.
Laxmi Vilas Palace, completed in 1890 is one of the largest palaces in India. It was commissioned by Sayajirao Gaekwad III of Baroda.
The British East India Company wrested control of much of Gujarat from the Marathas during the Second Anglo-Maratha War in 1802–1803. Many local rulers, notably the Rajput Maratha Gaekwad Maharajas of Baroda (Vadodara), made a separate peace with the British and acknowledged British sovereignty in return for retaining local self-rule.
Mahatma Gandhi picking salt at Dandi beach, South Gujarat ending the Salt satyagraha on 5 April 1930
Gujarat was placed under the political authority of the Bombay Presidency, with the exception of Baroda state, which had a direct relationship with the Governor-General of India. From 1818 to 1947, most of present-day Gujarat, including Kathiawar, Kutch and northern and eastern Gujarat were divided into hundreds of princely states, but several districts in central and southern Gujarat, namely Ahmedabad, Broach (Bharuch), Kaira (Kheda), Panchmahal and Surat, were governed directly by British officials.
In 1812, an epidemic outbreak killed and wiped out half the population of Gujarat.[29]
Indian Independence Movement[edit]
Gandhi at a public rally during the Salt Satyagraha.
The people of Gujarat were the most enthusiastic participants in India's struggle for freedom. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Morarji Desai, K.M. Munshi, Narhari Parikh, Mahadev Desai, Mohanlal Pandya and Ravi Shankar Vyas all hailed from Gujarat. It was also the site of the most popular revolts, including the Satyagrahas in Kheda, Bardoli, Borsad and the Salt Satyagraha.
See Also: Freedom fighters from Gujarat
Post-Independence (1947 CE - present)[edit]
K. M. Munshi with archaeologists and engineers of the Government of India, inspecting the ruins of Somnath Temple, c. 1950. The temple, which was destroyed several times by invaders, was reconstructed in 1951.
1947–1960[edit]
After Indian independence and the Partition of India in 1947, the new Indian government grouped the former princely states of Gujarat into three larger units; Saurashtra, which included the former princely states on the Kathiawar peninsula, Kutch, and Bombay state, which included the former British districts of Bombay Presidency together with most of Baroda state and the other former princely states of eastern Gujarat. In 1956, Bombay state was enlarged to include Kutch, Saurashtra, and parts of Hyderabad state and Madhya Pradesh in central India. The new state had a mostly Gujarati-speaking north and a Marathi-speaking south. Mahagujarat Movement led by Indulal Yagnik demanded splitting of Bombay state on linguistic lines. On 1 May 1960, Bombay state bifurcated into Gujarat and Maharashtra. The capital of Gujarat was Ahmedabad.[30]
Kutch was hit by the earthquake in 1956 which destroyed major parts of Anjar town. Gandhidham, Sardarnagar and Kubernagar were refugee settlements established for the resettlement of Sindhi Hindu refugees arriving from Pakistan after partition.
1960–1973[edit]
Bombay State (1956–1960) and its reorganisation.
Members of legislative assembly were elected from 132 constituencies of newly formed Gujarat state. Indian National Congress (INC) won the majority and Jivraj Narayan Mehta became the first chief minister of Gujarat. He served until 1963. Balwantrai Mehta succeed him. During Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, Mehta flew on aircraft to inspect Kutch border between India and Pakistan. The aircraft was shot down by Pakistan Air Force. Mehta was killed in the crash.[31][32]Hitendra Kanaiyalal Desai succeeded him and won assembly elections. In 1969, Indian National Congress split into Congress (O) headed by Morarji Desai and Congress (I) headed by Indira Gandhi.[33] At the same time, the Hindu nationalist organization Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) had established itself deeply in Gujarat around this period. The riots broke out across Gujarat in September to October 1969, resulting in large number of casualties and damage to properties. Desai resigned in 1971 due to split of INC and President's rule was imposed in Gujarat. Later Ghanshyam Oza became chief minister when Indira Gandhi led Congress (I) won majority in parliament after 1971 Indo-Pakistani war. Chimanbhai Patel opposed Oza and became chief minister in 1972. The capital of Gujarat moved from Ahmedabad to Gandhinagar in 1971 but legislative assembly building was completed in 1982.[34]
1974–2000[edit]
Navnirman movement started in December 1973 due to price rise and corruption in public life. People demanded resignation of Patel.[35][36][37][38] Due to pressure of protests, Indira Gandhi asked Patel to step down. He resigned on February 9, 1974 and President's rule imposed.[35][37] The governor suspended the state assembly and President's rule was imposed. Opposition parties led stepped in with demand for dissolution of state assembly.[36]Congress had 140 out of 167 MLAs in state assembly. 15 Congress (O) and three Jan Sangh MLAs also resigned. By March, protesters had got 95 of 167 to resign. Morarji Desai, leader of Congress (O), went on an indefinite fast in March and the assembly was dissolved bringing end to agitation.[35][36][37] No fresh election held until Morarji Desai went on indefinite hunger strike in April 1975.[36] The fresh elections were held in June 1975. Chimanbhai Patel formed new party named Kisan Mazdoor Lok Paksh and contested on his own. Congress lost elections which won only 75 seats. Coalition of Congress (O), Jan Sangh, PSP and Lok Dal known as Janata Morcha won 88 seats and Babubhai J. Patel became Chief Minister. Indira Gandhi imposed the emergency in 1975.[36] Janata Morcha government lasted nine months and president's rule imposed in March, 1976 following failure of passage of budget in assembly to opposition of coalition partners.[37] Later Congress won elections in December 1976 and Madhav Singh Solanki became Chief Minister.[36][37] A year later Madhav Singh Solanki resigned and again Babubhai Patel led Janata Party formed the government. He shifted his cabinet to Morbi for six months during 1979 Machchhu dam failure disaster which resulted in large casualties.[39]
Janata Morcha government was dismissed and president's rule was imposed in 1980 even though it had majority. Later Madhav Singh Solanki led INC won the election in 1980 and formed the government which completed five years in office. Amarsinh Chaudhary succeeded him in 1985 and headed government till 1989. Solanki again became chief minister until INC lost in 1990 election following Mandal commission protests. Chimanbhai Patel came back to power in March 1990 as the head of a Janata Dal -Bharatiya Janata Party coalition government. Coalition broke just few months after in October 1990 but Chimanbhai Patel managed to retain majority with support of 34 INC legislatures. Later Patel joined the INC and continued till his death in February 1994. Chhabildas Mehta succeeded him and continued till March 1995. In 1994 plague endemic broke out in Surat resulting in 52 deaths.[40]
Following the rise of Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) at centre, Keshubhai Patel led BJP won in 1995 assembly election. Keshubhai Patel became the chief minister of Gujarat in March but resigned eight months later as his colleague Shankersinh Vaghela revolted against him. BJP was split as Rashtriya Janata Party was formed by Vaghela who became the Chief Minister by support of INC. Assembly was dissolved in 1998 as INC withdrew its support. BJP returned to power led by Patel in 1998 assembly elections and he became the chief minister again.[41] In 1998, a severe tropical cyclone hit Kandla port and Saurashtra and Kutch regions.[42]
2000–present[edit]
Aftershocks, 2001 Gujarat earthquake – yellow star marks epicenter
Gujarat was hit with a devastating earthquake on 26 January 2001 which claimed a staggering 20,000 lives, injured another 200,000 people and severely affected the lives of 40 million of the population. Patel resigned as chief minister in October 2001 due to his failing health. Allegations of abuse of power, corruption and poor administration; as well as a loss of BJP seats in by-elections and mismanagement of relief works during the aftermath of the 2001 Bhuj earthquake; prompted the BJP's national leadership to seek a new candidate for the office of chief minister. He was replaced by Narendra Modi.[43][44][45][46]
The skyline of Ahmedabad filled with smoke as buildings are set on fire by rioting mobs during the Gujarat Riots of 2002. The riots led to at least 1,044 dead, 223 missing, and 2,500 injured.
The Gujarat Riots of 2002, was a three-day period of inter-communal violence in Gujarat between the Hindus and Muslims, characterized by mass murder, loot, rape, and destruction of property, affecting thousands of people, mostly Muslims. Though officially classified as a communalist riot, the events of 2002 have been described as a pogrom by many scholars. Scholars studying the 2002 riots state that they were premeditated and constituted a form of ethnic cleansing, and that the state government and law enforcement were complicit in the violence that occurred.[47][48][49][50][51][52][53] The government received worldwide criticism for failing to contain the situation.
In September 2002, there was a terrorist attack on Akshardham temple complex at Gandhinagar.[54] Modi led BJP won December 2002 election with majority. In 2005 and 2006, Gujarat was affected by floods. In July 2008, a series of 21 bomb blasts hit Ahmedabad, within a span of 70 minutes. 56 people were killed and over 200 people were injured in the attack.[55][56][57]2009 Gujarat hepatitis outbreak resulted in 49 deaths. In July 2009, more than 130 people died in hooch tragedy.[58]
Narendra Modi led BJP retained power in 2007 and 2012 assembly elections. Anandiben Patel became the first women Chief Minister of Gujarat on May 22, 2014 as Modi left the position following win in 2014 Indian general election.[59] He was sworn in as the second Prime Minister of Gujarati origin after Morarji Desai in May 2014. Heavy rain in June and July 2015 resulted in widespread flooding in Saurashtra and north Gujarat resulting in more than 150 deaths. The wild life of Gir Forest National Park and adjoining area was also affected.[60][61][62] Starting July 2015, the people of Patidar community carried out demonstrations across the state seeking Other Backward Class status which turned violent on 25 August and 19 September 2015 for brief period.[63] The agitation continued and again turned violent in April 2016.[64] In late 2016, Dalits protested across Gujarat in response to an assault on Dalit men in Una.[65][66] Following heavy rain in July 2017, the state, especially north Gujarat, was affected by the severe flood resulting in more than 200 deaths.[67] In October 2018, a rape incident had triggered the attacks on the Hindi-speaking migrants in Gujarat leading to exodus.[68]
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^The Chaulukya dynasty is not to be confused with the Chalukya dynasty.
Citations[edit]
- ^'Where does history begin?'. 18 October 2017.
- ^Official Gujarat State Portal. 'History of Gujarat'.
Gujarat : The State took its name from the Gujara, the land of the Gujjars, who ruled the area during the 700's and 800's.
- ^'Modern Gujarat'. Mapsofindia.com. Archived from the original on 28 May 2010. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
- ^ abcdefgPatel, Ambika B. (31 August 1999). '4. Archaeology of Early Historic Gujarat'. Iron technology in early historic India a case study of Gujarat (Thesis). Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda. pp. 72–105. hdl:10603/71979. Retrieved 14 October 2017 – via Shodhganga.
- ^Frederick Everard Zeuner (1950). Stone Age and Pleistocene Chronology in Gujarat. Deccan College, Postgraduate and Research Institute.
- ^'Antiquity Journal'. antiquity.ac.uk. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
- ^Malik, S. C. (1966). 'The Late Stone Age Industries from Excavated Sites in Gujarat, India'. Artibus Asiae. 28 (2/3): 162–174. doi:10.2307/3249352. JSTOR3249352.
- ^ abcK., Krishnan; S. V., Rajesh (2015). Dr., Shakirullah; Young, Ruth (eds.). 'Scenario of Chalcolithic Site Surveys in Gujarat'. Pakistan Heritage. 7: 1–34 – via Academia.edu.
- ^Ajithprasad, P (1 January 2002). 'The Mesolithic culture in the Orsang Valley, Gujarat'. Mesolithic India: 154–189.
- ^Raj Pruthi (1 January 2004). Prehistory and Harappan Civilization. APH Publishing. p. 104. ISBN978-81-7648-581-4.
- ^Varma, Supriya (11 August 2016). 'Villages abandoned: The case for mobile pastoralism in post-Harappan Gujarat'. Studies in History. 7 (2): 279–300. doi:10.1177/025764309100700206.
- ^Kathleen D. Morrison; Laura L. Junker (5 December 2002). Forager-Traders in South and Southeast Asia: Long-Term Histories. Cambridge University Press. pp. 49–51. ISBN978-0-521-01636-0.
- ^F. R. Allchin; George Erdosy (7 September 1995). The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States. Cambridge University Press. p. 20. ISBN978-0-521-37695-2.
- ^CNG Coins
- ^The Acts of Judas Thomas, M.R.James,Tr.by M. R. James, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924.
- ^A.E. MEDLYCOTT: AND THE APOSTLE THOMAS
- ^Trade And Trade Routes In Ancient India von Moti Chandra page: 99
- ^'Rani-ki-Vav (the Queen's Stepwell) at Patan, Gujarat'. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 2 April 2019.
- ^Ancient India by Ramesh Chandra Majumdar p. 366
- ^History, Religion and Culture of India, by S. Gajrani p.32
- ^Rose, Horace Arthur; Ibbetson (1990). Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North West Frontier Province. Asian Educational Services. p. 300. ISBN978-81-206-0505-3.
- ^Misra, Satish Chandra (1982). The Rise of Muslim Power in Gujarat: A History of Gujarat from 1298 to 1442. Munshiram Manoharlal.
- ^'Historic City of Ahmadabad'. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 2 April 2019.
- ^Sudipta Mitra (2005). Gir Forest and the Saga of the Asiatic Lion. Indus Publishing. p. 14. ISBN978-81-7387-183-2.
- ^ abCampbell 1896, p. 266-347.
- ^A., Nadri, Ghulam (2009). Eighteenth-century Gujarat : the dynamics of its political economy, 1750–1800. Leiden: Brill. ISBN9789004172029. OCLC568402132.
- ^WINGS Birding Tours to India: the West – Gujarat and the Rann of Kutch – Itinerary. Wingsbirds.com (14 December 2011). Retrieved on 28 July 2013.
- ^Rai, Rajesh; Reeves, Peter (2009). The South Asian diaspora transnational networks and changing identities. London: Routledge. p. 31. ISBN978-0-203-89235-0. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
- ^Petersen, Eskild; Chen, Lin Hwei; Schlagenhauf-Lawlor, Patricia (2017). Infectious Diseases: A Geographic Guide. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 8. ISBN9781119085737.
- ^Wood, John R. (1984). 'British versus Princely Legacies and the Political Integration of Gujarat'. The Journal of Asian Studies. 44 (1): 65–99. doi:10.2307/2056747. JSTOR2056747.
- ^Laskar, Rezaul (10 August 2011). 'Pak Pilot's Remorse for 1965 Shooting of Indian Plane'. Outlook. Archived from the original on 12 August 2011. Retrieved 11 August 2011.
- ^'Pakistan pilot's 'remorse' for 1965 shooting down'. BBC. 10 August 2011. Retrieved 11 August 2011.
- ^Ornit Shani (12 July 2007). Communalism, Caste and Hindu Nationalism: The Violence in Gujarat. Cambridge University Press. pp. 161–164. ISBN978-0-521-68369-2. Retrieved 6 February 2013.
- ^Kalia, Ravi (2004). Gandhinagar: Building National Identity in Postcolonial India. University of South Carolina Press. pp. 26, 33, 36, 37, 115. ISBN9781570035449.
- ^ abcShah, Ghanshyam (20 December 2007). 'Pulse of the people'. India Today. Retrieved 22 November 2012.
- ^ abcdefKrishna, Ananth V. (2011). India Since Independence: Making Sense Of Indian Politics. Pearson Education India. p. 117. ISBN9788131734650. Retrieved 22 November 2012.
- ^ abcdeDhar, P. N. (2000). 'Excerpted from 'Indira Gandhi, the 'emergency', and Indian democracy' published in Business Standard'. Business Standard India. Oxford University Press. ISBN9780195648997. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
- ^jain, Arun Kumar (1978). Political Science. FK Publication. p. 114. ISBN9788189611866. Retrieved 22 November 2012.
- ^'Gujarat ex-CM Babubhai Patel passes away'. Gandhinagar. Times of India. 20 December 2002. Retrieved 10 November 2013.
- ^Byrne, Joseph Patrick (2008). Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues: A-M. ABC-CLIO. pp. 542–543. ISBN978-0-313-34102-1. Retrieved 25 November 2011.
- ^'Bapa Keshubhai Patel remains man of the masses'. DNA. 5 August 2012. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
- ^World Ship Society (2000). Marine News. World Ship Society. p. 54. Retrieved 4 June 2012.
- ^Aditi Phadnis (2009). Business Standard Political Profiles of Cabals and Kings. Business Standard Books. pp. 116–21. ISBN978-81-905735-4-2. Retrieved 9 May 2013.
- ^Bunsha, Dionne (13 October 2001). 'A new oarsman'. Frontline. India. Archived from the original on 23 January 2002. Retrieved 9 May 2013.
- ^Venkatesan, V. (13 October 2001). 'A pracharak as Chief Minister'. Frontline. New Delhi. Archived from the original on 5 April 2013. Retrieved 9 May 2013.
- ^'Death for 11, life sentence for 20 in Godhra train burning case'. The Times of India. 1 March 2011.
- ^Nussbaum 2008, p. 50-51.
- ^Bobbio, Tommaso (2012). 'Making Gujarat Vibrant: Hindutva, development and the rise of subnationalism in India'. Third World Quarterly. 33 (4): 657–672. doi:10.1080/01436597.2012.657423.(subscription required)
- ^Shani 2007b, pp. 168–173.
- ^Buncombe, Andrew (19 September 2011). 'A rebirth dogged by controversy'. The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 25 December 2011. Retrieved 10 October 2012.
- ^Jaffrelot, Christophe (June 2013). 'Gujarat Elections: The Sub-Text of Modi's 'Hattrick'—High Tech Populism and the 'Neo-middle Class''. Studies in Indian Politics. 1 (1): 79–95. doi:10.1177/2321023013482789.'Archived copy'. Archived from the original on 23 October 2015. Retrieved 12 April 2014.CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
- ^Pandey, Gyanendra (November 2005). Routine violence: nations, fragments, histories. Stanford University Press. pp. 187–188. ISBN978-0-8047-5264-0.
- ^Gupta, Dipankar (2011). Justice before Reconciliation: Negotiating a 'New Normal' in Post-riot Mumbai and Ahmedabad. Routledge. p. 24. ISBN978-0-415-61254-8.
- ^'India riots: Court convicts 32 over Gujarat killings'. BBC News. 29 August 2012.
- ^'Ahmedabad blasts claim two more victims'. Hindustan Times. HT Media Ltd. 1 August 2008. Archived from the original on 10 August 2008. Retrieved 1 August 2008.
- ^'Gujarat police release three sketches'. The Hindu. Kasturi & Sons Ltd. 6 August 2008. Retrieved 6 August 2008.
- ^'Death toll in Ahmedabad serial blasts rises to 55'. Khabrein.info. 1 August 2008. Retrieved 1 August 2008.
- ^Gujarat hooch tragedy: Death toll rises to 136
- ^Anandiben Patel: Gujarat's First Woman Chief Minister
- ^Sonawane, Vishakha (26 June 2015). 'Heavy Rains In India: 70 Dead in Gujarat, Flood Alert In Jammu And Kashmir'. International Business Times. Retrieved 26 June 2015.
- ^'5 Lions Found Dead in Gujarat After Heavy Rain Leads to Flooding'. NDTV. 26 June 2015. Retrieved 26 June 2015.
- ^'Gujarat floods: More than 1,500 people evacuated after water level of Sabarmati rises dramatically – Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis'. dna. 30 July 2015. Retrieved 23 August 2015.
- ^'Agitation for reservation by Patel community puts BJP government in bind'. timesofindia-economictimes. 5 August 2015. Retrieved 18 August 2015.
- ^'Patidar reservation protests: Surat youth commits suicide'. Scroll.in. 18 April 2016. Retrieved 18 April 2016.
- ^'4 Dalits stripped, beaten up for skinning dead cow'. The Times of India. 13 July 2016. Retrieved 6 August 2016.
- ^'Old enmity behind flogging of Dalit youths in Una: Fact-finding team'. Hindustan Times. 22 July 2016. Retrieved 6 August 2016.
- ^'Gujarat Floods: Number Of Deaths Increases To 218 As More Bodies Found'. NDTV. 1 August 2017. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
- ^Sharon, Meghdoot (7 October 2018). 'UP, Bihar Migrants Flee Gujarat After 'Rape Backlash' Triggers Attacks; 342 Arrested'. News18. Retrieved 8 October 2018.
Bibliography[edit]
- Campbell, James Macnabb (1896). 'Chapter III. MUGHAL VICEROYS. (A.D. 1573–1758)'. In James Macnabb Campbell (ed.). History of Gujarát. Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency. Volume I. Part II. Musalmán Gujarát. (A.D. 1297–1760.). The Government Central Press. pp. 266–347.This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- Nussbaum, Martha Craven (2008). The Clash Within: Democracy, Religious Violence, and India's Future. Harvard University Press. ISBN978-0-674-03059-6.
- Shani, Ornit (2007). Communalism, Caste and Hindu Nationalism: The Violence in Gujarat. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-72753-2.
Further reading[edit]
- Edalji Dosabhai. A History Of Gujarat (1986) 379 pp. full text online, free
- Padmanābha, ., & Bhatnagar, V. S. (1991). Kanhadade Prabandha: India's greatest patriotic saga of medieval times : Padmanābha's epic account of Kānhaḍade. New Delhi: Voice of India.
- Yazdani, Kaveh. India, Modernity and the Great Divergence: Mysore and Gujarat (17th to 19th C. (Leiden: Brill, 2017. 669 pp. ISBN978-90-04-33079-5online review
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Gujarat&oldid=911452961'
Gujarati | |
---|---|
Gujarātī | |
Pronunciation | [ɡudʒəˈɾɑtiː] |
Native to | India |
Region | Gujarat |
Ethnicity | Gujaratis |
Native speakers | 55 million in India (2011 census)[1] |
Indo-European
| |
Old Gujarati | |
Gujarati script (Brahmic) Gujarati Braille Arabic script Devanagari (historical) | |
Official status | |
Official language in | India |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-1 | gu |
ISO 639-2 | guj |
ISO 639-3 | guj |
Glottolog | guja1252 [3] |
Linguasphere | 59-AAF-h |
Regions of India where Gujarati holds official status |
Gujarati (/ˌɡʊdʒəˈrɑːti/;[4]ગુજરાતીgujarātī[ɡudʒəˈɾɑtiː]) is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Indian state of Gujarat and spoken predominantly by the Gujarati people. Gujarati is part of the greater Indo-Europeanlanguage family. Gujarati is descended from Old Gujarati (circa 1100–1500 AD). In India, it is the official language in the state of Gujarat, as well as an official language in the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. As of 2011, Gujarati is the 6th most widely spoken language in India by number of native speakers, spoken by 55.5 million speakers which amounts to about 4.5% of the total Indian population.[1] It is the 26th most widely spoken language in the world by number of native speakers as of 2007.[5]
The Gujarati language is more than 700 years old and is spoken by more than 55 million people worldwide.[6] Outside of Gujarat, Gujarati is spoken in many other parts of South Asia by Gujarati migrants, especially in Mumbai and Pakistan (mainly in Karachi).[7] Gujarati is also widely spoken in many countries outside South Asia by the Gujarati diaspora. In North America, Gujarati is one of the fastest growing and most widely-spoken Indian languages in the United States and Canada.[8][9] In Europe, Gujaratis form the second largest of the British South Asian speech communities, and Gujarati is the fourth most commonly spoken language in the U.K.'s capital London.[10] Gujarati is also spoken in Southeast Africa, particularly in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia, and South Africa.[11][12][13] Elsewhere, Gujarati is spoken to a lesser extent in China (particularly Hong Kong), Indonesia, Singapore, Australia, and Middle Eastern countries such as Bahrain.[11][14][15] Gujarati was the mother tongue of Mahatma Gandhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah.[16][17]
- 1History
- 2Demographics and distribution
- 3Phonology
- 5Vocabulary
- 5.1Categorisation and sources
History[edit]
Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Mahatma Gandhi sharing a laugh in Bombay in 1944, for ill-fated political talks. These two prime political figures of the Indian subcontinent in the 20th century were Gujaratis and native speakers of the Gujarati language.
For Jinnah, Gujarati was important only as mother tongue. He was neither born nor raised in Gujarat,[18] and Gujarat did not end up a part of Pakistan, the state he espoused. He went on to advocate for solely Urdu in his politics.
For Gandhi, Gujarati served as a medium of literary expression. He helped to inspire a renewal in its literature,[19] and in 1936 he introduced the current spelling convention at the Gujarati Literary Society's 12th meeting.[20]
For Jinnah, Gujarati was important only as mother tongue. He was neither born nor raised in Gujarat,[18] and Gujarat did not end up a part of Pakistan, the state he espoused. He went on to advocate for solely Urdu in his politics.
For Gandhi, Gujarati served as a medium of literary expression. He helped to inspire a renewal in its literature,[19] and in 1936 he introduced the current spelling convention at the Gujarati Literary Society's 12th meeting.[20]
Updeshmala, Manuscript in Jain Prakrit and Old Gujarati on paper, Rupnagar, Rajastan, India, 1666, 76 ff. (−16 ff.), 11x25 cm, single column, (10x22 cm), 4 lines main text, 2–4 lines of interlinear commentary for each text line, in Jain Devanagari book script, filled with red and yellow, 17 paintings in colours mostly of SvetambaraJain monks, influenced by the Mughal style.
The text is a Prakrit didactic work of how best to live a proper Jain life, aimed probably at the laity. The Svetambara pontiff, Sri Dharmadasagaî, lived in the mid-6th century. The Old Gujarati prose commentary was written in 1487. The colophon gives the place, date, and the name of the religious leader, Sri Namdalalaji, on whose order the work was transcribed.
The text is a Prakrit didactic work of how best to live a proper Jain life, aimed probably at the laity. The Svetambara pontiff, Sri Dharmadasagaî, lived in the mid-6th century. The Old Gujarati prose commentary was written in 1487. The colophon gives the place, date, and the name of the religious leader, Sri Namdalalaji, on whose order the work was transcribed.
Gujarati (also sometimes spelled Gujerati, Gujarathi, Guzratee, Guujaratee, 'Gujarati', Gujrathi, and Gujerathi[21][22]) is a modern IA (Indo-Aryan) language evolved from Sanskrit. The traditional practice is to differentiate the IA languages on the basis of three historical stages:[22]
- Old IA (Vedic and Classical Sanskrit)
- Middle IA (various Prakrits and Apabhramshas)
- New IA (modern languages such as Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali, etc.)
Another view postulates successive family tree splits, in which Gujarati is assumed to have separated from other IA languages in four stages:[23]
- IA languages split into Northern, Eastern, and Western divisions based on the innovate characteristics such as plosives becoming voiced in the Northern (Skt. danta 'tooth' > Punj. dānd) and dental and retroflexsibilants merging with the palatal in the Eastern (Skt. sandhya 'evening' > Beng. śājh).[24]
- Western, into Central and Southern.
- Central, in Gujarati/Rajasthani, Western Hindi, and Punjabi/Lahanda/Sindhi, on the basis of innovation of auxiliary verbs and postpositions in Gujarati/Rajasthani.[22]
- Gujarati/Rajasthani into Gujarati and Rajasthani through development of such characteristics as auxiliary ch- and the possessivemarker -n- during the 15th century.[25]
The principal changes from Sanskrit are the following:[23]
- Phonological
- Loss of original phonemiclength for vowels
- Change of consonant clusters to geminate and then to single consonants (with compensatory vowel length)
English | Sanskrit | Prakrit | Gujarati | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|
hand | hasta | hattha | hāth | [26] |
seven | sapta | satta | sāt | [27] |
eight | aṣṭā | aṭṭha | āṭh | [28] |
snake | sarpa | sappa | sāp | [29] |
- Morphological
- Reduction in the number of compounds
- Merger of the dual with plural
- Replacement of caseaffixes by postpositions
- Development of periphrastictense/voice/mood constructions
- Syntax
- More complex agreement system
Gujarati is then customarily divided into the following three historical stages:[22]
Old Gujarati[edit]
Middle Gujarati[edit]
Modern Gujarati (AD 1800– )[edit]
A Page from the Gujarati translation of Dabestan-e Mazaheb prepared and printed by Fardunjee Marzban (25 December 1815)
A major phonological change was the deletion of final ə, such that the modern language has consonant-final words. Grammatically, a new plural marker of -o developed.[30] In literature, the third quarter of the 19th century saw a series of milestones for Gujarati, which previously had verse as its dominant mode of literary composition.[31]
Demographics and distribution[edit]
Map of Gujarat
India Square, or Little Gujarat, in Bombay, Jersey City, New Jersey, USA. Gujarati has achieved high linguistic prominence in many urban districts worldwide, particularly in the New York City Metropolitan Area.
Of the approximately 46 million speakers of Gujarati in 1997, roughly 45.5 million resided in India, 150,000 in Uganda, 50,000 in Tanzania, 50,000 in Kenya and roughly 100,000 in Karachi, Pakistan, excluding several hundreds of thousands of Memonis who do not self-identify as Gujarati, but hail from a region within the state of Gujarat.[32] However, Gujarati community leaders in Pakistan claim that there are 3 million Gujarati speakers in Karachi.[33] Elsewhere in Pakistan, Gujarati is also spoken in Lower Punjab.[34] Pakistani Gujarati is probably a dialect of Gamadia.[34]
There is a certain amount of Mauritian population and a large amount of Réunion Island people who are from Gujarati descent among which some of them still speak Gujarati.
A considerable Gujarati-speaking population exists in North America, most particularly in the New York City Metropolitan Area and in the Greater Toronto Area, which have over 100,000 speakers and over 75,000 speakers, respectively, but also throughout the major metropolitan areas of the United States and Canada. According to the 2011 census, Gujarati is the seventeenth most spoken language in the Greater Toronto Area, and the fourth most spoken South Asian language after Hindi-Urdu, Punjabi and Tamil.
The UK has over 200,000 speakers, many of them situated in the London area, especially in North West London, but also in Birmingham, Manchester, and in Leicester, Coventry, Bradford and the former mill towns within Lancashire. A portion of these numbers consists of East African Gujaratis who, under increasing discrimination and policies of Africanisation in their newly independent resident countries (especially Uganda, where Idi Amin expelled 50,000 Asians), were left with uncertain futures and citizenships. Most, with British passports, settled in the UK.[19][35] Gujarati is offered as a GCSE subject for students in the UK.
Gujarati parents in the diaspora are not comfortable with the possibility of their language not surviving them.[36] In a study, 80% of Malayali parents felt that 'Children would be better off with English', compared to 36% of Kannada parents and only 19% of Gujarati parents.[36]
Besides being spoken by the Gujarati people, non-Gujarati residents of and migrants to the state of Gujarat also count as speakers, among them the Kutchis (as a literary language),[19] the Parsis (adopted as a mother tongue), and HinduSindhirefugees from Pakistan.A distribution of the geographical area can be found in 'Linguistic Survey of India' by George A. Grierson.
Official status[edit]
Gujarati is one of the twenty-two official languages and fourteen regional languages of India. It is officially recognized in the state of Gujarat, India and the union territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.
Gujarati is recognized and taught as a minority language in the states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu and the union territory of Delhi.[37]
Dialects[edit]
The handbook for beginning programmers with examples in javascript. According to British historian and philologist William Tisdall, who was an early scholar of Gujarati grammar, three major varieties of Gujarati exist: a standard 'Hindu' dialect, a 'Parsi' dialect and a 'Muslim' dialect.[38]
However, Gujarati has undergone contemporary reclassification with respect to the widespread regional differences in vocabulary and phrasing; notwithstanding the number of poorly attested dialects and regional variations in naming.
- Standard Gujarati: this forms something of a standardised variant of Gujarati across news, education and government. It is also spoken in pockets of Maharashtra. The varieties of it include Mumbai Gujarati, Nagari, Patnuli, Saurashtra Standard.
- Gamadia: spoken primarily in Ahmedabad and the surrounding regions, in addition to Bharuch and Surat, where it is colloquially known as 'Surati'. The varieties of it include Ahmedabad Gamadia, Anawla, Brathela, Charotari, Eastern Broach Gujarati, Gramya, Patani, Patidari, Surati, Vadodari.
- Kathiawari: a distinctive variant spoken primarily in the Kathiawar region and subject to significant Sindhi influence. The varieties of it include Bhavnagari, Gohilwadi, Holadi/Halari, Jhalawadi, Sorathi.
Kharwa, Kakari and Tarimuki (Ghisadi) are also often cited as additional varieties of Gujarati.
- Parsi: spoken by the ZoroastrianParsi minority. This highly distinctive variety has been subject to considerable lexical influence by Avestan, the liturgical Zoroastrian language.
- Lisan ud-Dawat: spoken primarily by Gujarati MuslimBohra communities, it has been subject to greater lexical influence by Arabic and Persian and is written in the Arabic script.
Kutchi is often referred to as a dialect of Gujarati, but most linguists consider it closer to Sindhi. In addition, a mixture between Sindhi, Gujarati, and Kutchi called Memoni is related to Gujarati, albeit distantly.[39]
Furthermore, words used by the native languages of areas where the Gujarati people have become a diaspora community, such as East Africa (Swahili), have become loanwords in local dialects of Gujarati.[40]
Phonology[edit]
Vowels[edit]
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
Close | i | u | |
Close-mid | e | ə | o |
Open-mid | ɛ | ɔ | |
Open | (æ) | ɑ |
Consonants[edit]
Labial | Dental/ Alveolar | Retroflex | Postal. /Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n | ɳ | ɲ | ||
Plosive | voiceless | p | t | ʈ | tʃ | k |
voiced | b | d | ɖ | dʒ | ɡ | |
aspirated | pʰ | tʰ | ʈʰ | tʃʰ | kʰ | |
murmured | bʱ | dʱ | ɖʱ | dʒʱ | ɡʱ | |
Fricative | voiceless | (f) | s | ʃ | ||
voiced | (z) | ɦ | ||||
Approximant | ʋ | l | ɭ̆[41] | j | ||
Flap | ɾ |
Writing system[edit]
Motorola ht1250 programming software. Similar to other Nāgarī writing systems, the Gujarati script is an abugida. It is used to write the Gujarati and Kutchi languages. It is a variant of the Devanāgarī script, differentiated by the loss of the characteristic horizontal line running above the letters and by a small number of modifications in the remaining characters.
Gujarati and closely related languages, including Kutchi and Parkari Koli, can be written in the Arabic or Persian scripts. This is traditionally done by many in Gujarat's Kutch district.
Vocabulary[edit]
Categorisation and sources[edit]
These are the three general categories of words in modern Indo-Aryan: tatsam, tadbhav, and loanwords.[42]
Tadbhav[edit]
તદ્ભવtadbhava, 'of the nature of that'. Gujarati is a modern Indo-Aryan language descended from Sanskrit (old Indo-Aryan), and this category pertains exactly to that: words of Sanskritic origin that have demonstratively undergone change over the ages, ending up characteristic of modern Indo-Aryan languages specifically as well as in general. Thus the 'that' in 'of the nature of that' refers to Sanskrit. They tend to be non-technical, everyday, crucial words; part of the spoken vernacular. Below is a table of a few Gujarati tadbhav words and their Old Indo-Aryan sources:
Old Indo-Aryan | Gujarati | Ref | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
I | aham | hũ | [43] | |
falls, slips | khasati | khasvũ | to move | [44] |
causes to move | arpayati | āpvũ | to give | [45] |
school | nayaśālā | niśāḷ | [46] | |
attains to, obtains | prāpnoti | pāmvũ | [47] | |
tiger | vyāghra | vāgh | [48] | |
equal, alike, level | sama | samũ | right, sound | [49] |
all | sarva | sau | [50] |
Tatsam[edit]
તત્સમtatsama, 'same as that'. While Sanskrit eventually stopped being spoken vernacularly, in that it changed into Middle Indo-Aryan, it was nonetheless standardized and retained as a literary and liturgical language for long after. This category consists of these borrowed words of (more or less) pure Sanskrit character. They serve to enrich Gujarati and modern Indo-Aryan in its formal, technical, and religious vocabulary. They are recognizable by their Sanskrit inflections and markings; they are thus often treated as a separate grammatical category unto themselves.
Tatsam | English | Gujarati |
---|---|---|
lekhak | writer | lakhnār |
vijetā | winner | jītnār |
vikǎsit | developed | vikǎselũ |
jāgǎraṇ | awakening | jāgvānũ |
Many old tatsam words have changed their meanings or have had their meanings adopted for modern times. પ્રસારણ prasāraṇ means 'spreading', but now it is used for 'broadcasting'. In addition to this are neologisms, often being calques. An example is telephone, which is Greek for 'far talk', translated as દુરભાષ durbhāṣ. Though most people just use ફોન phon and thus neo-Sanskrit has varying degrees of acceptance.
So, while having unique tadbhav sets, modern IA languages have a common, higher tatsam pool. Also, tatsams and their derived tadbhavs can also co-exist in a language; sometimes of no consequence and at other times with differences in meaning:
Tatsam | Tadbhav | ||
---|---|---|---|
karma | Work—Dharmic religious concept of works or deeds whose divine consequences are experienced in this life or the next. | kām | work [without any religious connotations]. |
kṣetra | Field—Abstract sense, such as a field of knowledge or activity; khāngī kṣetra → private sector. Physical sense, but of higher or special importance; raṇǎkṣetra → battlefield. | khetar | field [in agricultural sense]. |
What remains are words of foreign origin (videśī), as well as words of local origin that cannot be pegged as belonging to any of the three prior categories (deśaj). The former consists mainly of Persian, Arabic, and English, with trace elements of Portuguese and Turkish. While the phenomenon of English loanwords is relatively new, Perso-Arabic has a longer history behind it. Both English and Perso-Arabic influences are quite nationwide phenomena, in a way paralleling tatsam as a common vocabulary set or bank. What's more is how, beyond a transposition into general Indo-Aryan, the Perso-Arabic set has also been assimilated in a manner characteristic and relevant to the specific Indo-Aryan language it is being used in, bringing to mind tadbhav.
Perso-Arabic[edit]
India was ruled for many a century by Persian-speaking Muslims, amongst the most notable being the Turko-AfghanDelhi Sultanate, and the Turco-MongolMughal dynasty. As a consequence Indian languages were changed greatly, with the large scale entry of Persian and its many Arabic loans into the Gujarati lexicon. One fundamental adoption was Persian's conjunction 'that', ke. Also, while tatsam or Sanskrit is etymologically continuous to Gujarati, it is essentially of a differing grammar (or language), and that in comparison while Perso-Arabic is etymologically foreign, it has been in certain instances and to varying degrees grammatically indigenized. Owing to centuries of situation and the end of Persian education and power, (1) Perso-Arabic loans are quite unlikely to be thought of or known as loans, and (2) more importantly, these loans have often been Gujarati-ized. dāvo – claim, fāydo – benefit, natījo – result, and hamlo – attack, all carry Gujarati's masculine gender marker, o. khānũ – compartment, has the neuter ũ. Aside from easy slotting with the auxiliary karvũ, a few words have made a complete transition of verbification: kabūlvũ – to admit (fault), kharīdvũ – to buy, kharǎcvũ – to spend (money), gujarvũ – to pass. The last three are definite part and parcel.
Below is a table displaying a number of these loans. Currently some of the etymologies are being referenced to an Urdu dictionary so that Gujarati's singular masculine o corresponds to Urdu ā, neuter ũ groups into ā as Urdu has no neuter gender, and Urdu's Persian z is not upheld in Gujarati and corresponds to j or jh. In contrast to modern Persian, the pronunciation of these loans into Gujarati and other Indo-Aryan languages, as well as that of Indian-recited Persian, seems to be in line with Persian spoken in Afghanistan and Central Asia, perhaps 500 years ago.[51]
Nouns | Adjectives | ||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
m | n | f | |||||||||||||||||||||
fāydo | gain, advantage, benefit | A | [52] | khānũ | compartment | P | [53] | kharīdī | purchase(s), shopping | P | [54] | tājũ | fresh | P | [55] | ||||||||
humlo | attack | A | [56] | makān | house, building | A | [57] | śardī | common cold | P | [58] | judũ | different, separate | P | [59] | ||||||||
dāvo | claim | A | [60] | nasīb | luck | A | [61] | bāju | side | P | [62] | najīk | near | P | [63] | ||||||||
natījo | result | A | [64] | śaher | city | P | [65] | cījh | thing | P | [66] | kharāb | bad | A | [67] | ||||||||
gusso | anger | P | [68] | medān | plain | P | [69] | jindgī | life | P | [70] | lāl | red | P | [71] |
Lastly, Persian, being part of the Indo-Iranian language family as Sanskrit and Gujarati are, met up in some instances with its cognates:[72]
Persian | Indo-Aryan | English |
---|---|---|
marăd | martya | man, mortal |
stān | sthān | place, land |
ī | īya | (adjectival suffix) |
band | bandh | closed, fastened |
Zoroastrian Persian refugees known as Parsis also speak an accordingly Persianized form of Gujarati.[73]
English[edit]
With the end of Perso-Arabic inflow, English became the current foreign source of new vocabulary. English had and continues to have a considerable influence over Indian languages. Loanwords include new innovations and concepts, first introduced directly through British colonialism, and then streaming in on the basis of continued English language dominance in the post-colonial period. Besides the category of new ideas is the category of English words that already have Gujarati counterparts which end up replaced or existed alongside with. The major driving force behind this latter category has to be the continuing role of English in modern India as a language of education, prestige, and mobility. In this way, Indian speech can be sprinkled with English words and expressions, even switches to whole sentences.[74]See Hinglish, Code-switching.
In matters of sound, English alveolar consonants map as retroflexes rather than dentals. Two new characters were created in Gujarati to represent English /æ/'s and /ɔ/'s. Levels of Gujarati-ization in sound vary. Some words don't go far beyond this basic transpositional rule, and sound much like their English source, while others differ in ways, one of those ways being the carrying of dentals. See Indian English.
As English loanwards are a relatively new phenomenon, they adhere to English grammar, as tatsam words adhere to Sanskrit. Though that isn't to say that the most basic changes have been underway: many English words are pluralized with Gujarati o over English 's'. Also, with Gujarati having three genders, genderless English words must take one. Though often inexplicable, gender assignment may follow the same basis as it is expressed in Gujarati: vowel type, and the nature of word meaning.
bâṅk | bank | phon | phone | ṭebal | table | bas | bus | rabbar | eraser | dôkṭar | doctor | rasīd | receipt |
helo halo hālo | hello | hôspiṭal aspitāl ispitāl | hospital | sṭeśan ṭeśan | train station | sāykal | bicycle | rum | room | āis krīm | ice cream | esī | air conditioning |
aṅkal1 | uncle | āṇṭī1 | aunt | pākīṭ | wallet | kavar | envelope | noṭ | banknote | skūl | school | ṭyuśan | tuition |
miniṭ miniṭ | minute | ṭikiṭ ṭikaṭ | ticket | sleṭ | slate | hoṭal | hotel | pārṭī | political party | ṭren | train | kalekṭar | district collector |
reḍīyo | radio |
- 1 These English forms are often used (prominently by NRIs) for those family friends and elders that aren't actually uncles and aunts but are of the age.
Portuguese[edit]
The smaller foothold the Portuguese had in wider India had linguistic effects. Gujarati took up a number of words, while elsewhere the influence was great enough to the extent that creole languages came to be (see Portuguese India, Portuguese-based creole languages in India and Sri Lanka). Comparatively, the impact of Portuguese has been greater on coastal languages[75] and their loans tend to be closer to the Portuguese originals.[76] The source dialect of these loans imparts an earlier pronunciation of ch as an affricate instead of the current standard of [ʃ].[51]
Gujarati | Meaning | Portuguese |
---|---|---|
istrī | iron(ing)]] | estirar1 |
mistrī2 | carpenter | mestre3 |
sābu | soap | sabão (from Arabic sābun) |
chāvī | key | chave |
tamāku | tobacco | tobaco |
kobī | cabbage | couve |
kāju | cashew | caju |
pāũ | bread | pão |
baṭāko | potato | batata |
anānas | pineapple | ananás |
pādrī | father (in Catholicism) | padre |
aṅgrej(ī) | English (not specifically the language) | inglês |
nātāl | Christmas | natal |
- 1 'Lengthen'.
- 2 Common occupational surname.
- 3 'Master'.
Loans into English[edit]
Bungalow--
“ | 1676, from Gujarati bangalo, from Hindi bangla 'low, thatched house,' lit. 'Bengalese,' used elliptically for 'house in the Bengal style.'[77] | ” |
Coolie--
“ | 1598, 'name given by Europeans to hired laborers in India and China,' from Hindi quli 'hired servant,' probably from koli, name of an aboriginal tribe or caste in Gujarat.[78] | ” |
Tank--
“ | c.1616, 'pool or lake for irrigation or drinking water,' a word originally brought by the Portuguese from India, ult. from Gujarati tankh 'cistern, underground reservoir for water,' Marathi tanken, or tanka 'reservoir of water, tank.' Perhaps from Skt. tadaga-m 'pond, lake pool,' and reinforced in later sense of 'large artificial container for liquid' (1690) by Port. tanque 'reservoir,' from estancar 'hold back a current of water,' from V.L. *stanticare (see stanch). But others say the Port. word is the source of the Indian ones.[79] | ” |
Grammar[edit]
Gujarati is a head-final, or left-branching language. Adjectives precede nouns, direct objects come before verbs, and there are postpositions. The word order of Gujarati is SOV, and there are three genders and two numbers. There are no definite or indefinite articles. A verb is expressed with its verbal root followed by suffixes marking aspect and agreement in what is called a main form, with a possible proceeding auxiliary form derived from to be, marking tense and mood, and also showing agreement. Causatives (up to double) and passives have a morphological basis.[80]
Sample text[edit]
Gujarati sample (Sign about Gandhi's hut)
- Gujarati script--
- ગાંધીજીની ઝૂંપડી-કરાડી
- જગ પ્રસિદ્ધ દાંડી કૂચ પછી ગાંધીજીએ અહીં આંબાના વૃક્ષ નીચે ખજૂરી નાં છટિયાંની એક ઝૂંપડીમાં તા.૧૪-૪-૧૯૩૦ થી તા.૪-૫-૧૯૩૦ સુધી નિવાસ કર્યો હતો. દાંડીમાં છઠ્ઠી એપ્રિલે શરૂ કરેલી નિમક કાનૂન (મીઠાના સત્યાગ્રહ) ભંગની લડતને તેમણે અહીંથી વેગ આપી દેશ વ્યાપી બનાવી હતી. અહીંથી જ તેમણે ધરાસણાના મીઠાના અગરો તરફ કૂચ કરવાનો પોતાનો સંકલ્પ બ્રિટિશ વાઈસરૉયને પત્ર લખીને જણાવ્યો હતો.
- તા.૪થી મે ૧૯૩૦ની રાતના બાર વાગ્યા પછી આ સ્થળેથી બ્રિટિશ સરકારે તેમની ધરપકડ કરી હતી.
- Devanagari script –
- गांधीजीनी झूंपडी-कराडी
- जग प्रसिद्ध दांडी कूच पछी गांधीजीए अहीं आंबाना वृक्ष नीचे खजूरीनां छटियांनी एक झूंपडीमां ता.१४-४-१९३०थी ता.४-५-१९३० सुधी निवास कर्यो हतो. दांडीमां छठ्ठी एप्रिले शरू करेली निमक कानून भंगनी लडतने तेमणे अहींथी वेग आपी देश व्यापी बनावी हती. अहींथीज तेमणे धरासणाना मीठाना अगरो तरफ कूच करवानो पोतानो संकल्प ब्रिटिश वाईसरॉयने पत्र लखीने जणाव्यो हतो.
- ता.४थी मे १९३०नी रातना बार वाग्या पछी आ स्थळेथी ब्रिटिश सरकारे तेमनी धरपकड करी हती.
- Transliteration (IAST)--
- gāndhījīnī jhūmpḍī-karāḍī
- jag prasiddh dāṇḍī kūc pachī gāndhījīe ahī̃ āmbānā vrukṣ nīce khajūrī nā̃ chaṭiyānnī ek jhūmpḍīmā̃ tā.14-4-1930 thī tā.4-5-1930 sudhī nivās karyo hato. dāṇḍīmā̃ chaṭhṭhī eprile śarū karelī nimak kānūn (mīṭhānā satyāgraha) bhaṅgnī laḍatne temṇe ahīnthī veg āpī deś vyāpī banāvī hatī. ahīnthī ja temṇe dharāsṇānā mīṭhānā agro taraph kūc karvāno potāno saṅkalp briṭiś vāīsarôyane patra lakhīne jaṇāvyo hato.
- tā.4thī me 1930nī rātnā bār vāgyā pachī ā sthaḷethī briṭiś sarkāre temnī dharapkaḍ karī hatī.
- Transcription (IPA)--
- [ɡɑndʱid͡ʒini d͡ʒʱũpɽi-kəɾɑɽi]
- [d͡ʒəɡ pɾəsɪddʱ ɖɑɳɖi kut͡ʃ pət͡ʃʰi ɡɑndʱid͡ʒie ə̤ȷ̃ ɑmbɑnɑ ʋɾʊkʃ nit͡ʃe kʰəd͡ʒuɾnɑ̃ t͡ʃʰəʈijɑ̃ni ek d͡ʒʱũpɽimɑ̃ tɑ _________tʰi tɑ|| _______ sudʱi niʋɑs kəɾjoto|| ɖɑɳɖimɑ̃ t͡ʃʰəʈʰʈʰi epɾile ʃəɾu kəɾeli nimək kɑnun bʱəŋɡni ləɽətne tɛmɳe ə̤ȷ̃tʰi ʋeɡ ɑpi deʃ ʋjɑpi bənɑʋiti|| ə̤ȷ̃tʰid͡ʒ tɛmɳe dʱəɾɑsəɽ̃ɑnɑ miʈʰɑnɑ əɡəɾo təɾəf kut͡ʃ kəɾʋɑno potɑno səŋkəlp bɾiʈiʃ ʋɑjsəɾɔjne pətɾə ləkʰine d͡ʒəɽ̃ɑʋjoto]
- [tɑ| __tʰi me ____ni ɾɑtnɑ bɑɾ ʋɑɡjɑ pət͡ʃʰi ɑ stʰəɭetʰi bɾiʈiʃ səɾkɑɾe tɛmni dʱəɾpəkəɽ kəɾiti]
- Simple gloss--
- gandhiji's hut-karadi
- world famous dandi march after gandhiji here mango's tree under palm date's bark's one hut-in date.14-4-1930-from date.4-5-1930 until residence done was. dandi-in sixth april-at started done salt law break's fight (-to) he here-from speed gave country wide made was. here-from he dharasana's salt's mounds towards march doing's self's resolve british viceroy-to letter written-having notified was.
- date.4-from May 1930's night's twelve struck after this place-at-from British government his arrest done was.
- Transliteration and detailed gloss--
gāndhījī-n-ī | jhū̃pṛ-ī-∅ | Karāṛī |
gandhiji–GEN–FEM | hut–FEM–SG | karadi |
jag | prasiddh | dāṇḍī | kūc | pachī | gāndhījī-e | ahī̃ | āmb-ā-∅-n-ā | vṛkṣ | nīce |
world | famous | dandi | march | after | gandhiji–ERG | here | mango–MASC.OBL–SG–GEN–MASC.OBL | tree | under |
khajūr-ī-∅-n-ā̃ | chaṭiy-ā̃-n-ī | ek | jhū̃pṛ-ī-∅-mā̃ | tā. | 14 4 1930thī | tā. | 4 5 1930 | sudhī |
palmdate–FEM–SG–GEN–NEUT.OBL | bark–NEUT.PL.OBL–GEN–FEM.OBL | one | hut–FEM–SG–in | date | 14 4 1930–from | date | until |
nivās | kar-y-o | ha-t-o | . | dāṇḍī-mā̃ | chaṭhṭhī | epril-e | śarū | kar-el-ī | nimak |
residence.MASC.SG.OBJ.NOM | do–PERF–MASC.SG | be–PAST–MASC.SG | dandi–in | sixth | April–at | started | do–PAST.PTCP–FEM | salt |
kānūn | bhaṅg-n-ī | laṛat-∅-ne | te-m-ṇe | ahī̃-thī | veg | āp-ī | deś | vyāpī |
law | break–GEN–FEM.OBL | fight.FEM.OBJ–SG–ACC | 3.DIST–HONORIFIC–ERG | here–from | speed–OBJ | give–CONJUNCTIVE | country | wide |
ban-āv-∅-ī | ha-t-ī | . | ahī̃-thī-j | te-m-ṇe | dharāsaṇā-n-ā |
become–CAUS–PERF–FEM | be–PAST–FEM | here–from–INTENSIFIER | 3.DIST–HONORIFIC–ERG | dharasana–GEN–MASC.PL |
mīṭh-ā-n-ā | agar-o | taraph | kūc | kar-v-ā-n-o | potā-n-o |
salt–NEUT.SG.OBL–GEN–MASC.PL | mound.MASC–PL | towards | march.MASC.SG | do–INF–OBL–GEN–MASC.SG | REFL–GEN–MASC.SG |
saṅkalp | briṭiś | vāīsarôy-∅-ne | patra | lakh-īne | jaṇ-āv-y-o | ha-t-o | . | tā. |
resolve.MASC.SG.OBJ.ACC | British | viceroy.OBJ–SG–DAT | letter | write–CONJUNCTIVE | know–CAUS–PERF–MASC.SG | be–PAST–MASC.SG | date |
4-thī | me | 1930-n-ī | rāt-∅-n-ā | bār | vāg-y-ā | pachī | ā | sthaḷ-e-thī | briṭiś |
4-th | may | 1930–GEN–FEM.OBL | night.FEM–SG–GEN–MASC.OBL | twelve | strike–PERF–OBL | after | 3.PROX | place–at–from | British |
sarkār-e | te-m-n-ī | dharpakaṛ | kar-∅-ī | ha-t-ī | . |
government–ERG | 3.DIST–HONORIFIC–GEN–FEM | arrest.FEM.SG.OBJ.ACC | do–PERF–FEM | be–PAST–FEM |
- Translation--
- Gandhiji's hut-Karadi
- After the world-famous Dandi March Gandhiji resided here in a date palmbark hut underneath a/the mango tree, from 14-4-1930 to 4-5-1930. From here he gave speed to and spread country-wide the anti-Salt Law struggle, started in Dandi on 6 April. From here, writing in a letter, he notified the British Viceroy of his resolve of marching towards the saltmounds of Dharasana.
- The British government arrested him at this location, after twelve o'clock on the night of 4 May 1930.
Translation (provided at location)--
- Gandhiji's hut-Karadi
- Here under the mango tree in the hut made of palm leaves (khajoori) Gandhiji stayed from 14-4-1930 to 4-5-1930 after the world famous Dandi march. From here he gave impetus to the civil disobedience movement for breaking the salt act started on 6 April at Dandi and turned it into a nationwide movement. It was also from this place that he wrote a letter to the British viceroy expressing his firm resolve to march to the salt works at Dharasana.
- This is the place from where he was arrested by the British government after midnight on 4 May 1930.
See also[edit]
- Lisaan ud-Da'wat il-'Alaviyah (Language of Alavi Bohras)
History Of Gujarat State In Gujarati Language Pdf
References[edit]
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- ^Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student's Handbook, Edinburgh.
- ^Mikael Parkvall, 'Världens 100 största språk 2007' (The World's 100 Largest Languages in 2007), in Nationalencyklopedin. Asterisks mark the 2010 estimates for the top dozen languages.
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Gujarati is at least 700 years old and is spoken by more than 55 million people worldwide.
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Gujaratis form the second largest of the British South Asian speech communities, with important settlements in Leicester and Coventry in the Midlands, in the northern textile towns and in Greater London.
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- ^Barlas, Robert; Yong, Jui Lin (2010). Uganda. Marshall Cavendish. p. 96. ISBN9780761448594.
Of the non-Ugandan languages, Hindi and Gujarati are commonly spoken among members of the Asian Hindu community that migrated to Uganda during the early part of the 20th century.
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English is spoken as a first language by most Indian South Africans, although a minority of the Indian South African population, especially the elders, still speak some Indian languages. These languages include Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, Punjabi, and Gujarati.
- ^'Gujarati Community in Hong Kong organizes grand reception in the honour of Gujarat CM'. Official Portal of Gujarat Government.
Addressing the community in Gujarati
- ^'Indians make up over 1 per cent of Australia's population'. The Indian Express. 27 June 2014.
- ^Benson, Eugene (30 November 2004). Encyclopedia of Post-Colonial Literatures in English. Routledge. p. 563. ISBN9781134468485.
Gandhi's seminal work, 'Hind Swaraj' ('Indian Home Role'), appeared in the columns of Indian Opinion in 1909. Originally written in his mother tongue, Gujarati, it was translated into English by Gandhi and published as Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Role in 1910.
- ^'Jinnah didn't know Urdu, was fluent in Gujarati'. The Times of India. 30 August 2009. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
- ^Timeline: Personalities, Story of Pakistan. 'Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1876–1948)'. Retrieved 12 May 2007.
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- ^ abcdMistry (2001), pp. 274.
- ^ abMistry (2003), p. 115.
- ^Mistry (1997), pp. 654–655.
- ^Mistry (1997), p. 655.
- ^Turner (1966), p. 811. Entry 14024.
- ^Turner (1966), p. 760. Entry 13139.
- ^Turner (1966), p. 41. Entry 941.
- ^Turner (1966), p. 766. Entry 13271.
- ^Cardona & Suthar (2003), p. 661.
- ^Yashaschandra, S. (1995) 'Towards Hind Svaraj: An Interpretation of the Rise of Prose in 19th-century Gujarati Literature.' Social Scientist. Vol. 23, No. 10/12. pp. 41–55.
- ^Gujarati language at Ethnologue (16th ed., 2009)
- ^Rehman, Zia Ur (18 August 2015). 'With a handful of subbers, two newspapers barely keeping Gujarati alive in Karachi'. The News International. Retrieved 14 January 2017.
In Pakistan, the majority of Gujarati-speaking communities are in Karachi including Dawoodi Bohras, Ismaili Khojas, Memons, Kathiawaris, Katchhis, Parsis (Zoroastrians) and Hindus, said Gul Hasan Kalmati, a researcher who authored 'Karachi, Sindh Jee Marvi', a book discussing the city and its indigenous communities. Although there are no official statistics available, community leaders claim that there are three million Gujarati-speakers in Karachi – roughly around 15 percent of the city's entire population.
- ^ abWilliam Frawley (May 2003). International Encyclopedia of Linguistics: 4-Volume Set. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 292–. ISBN978-0-19-513977-8.
- ^Dwyer (1995), p. 273.
- ^ abKachru, Braj B.; Kachru, Yamuna; Sridhar, S. N. (2008). Language in South Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 531. ISBN9781139465502.
- ^'51st REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER FOR LINGUISTIC MINORITIES IN INDIA'(PDF). nclm.nic.in. Ministry of Minority Affairs. 15 July 2015. Archived from the original(PDF) on 16 February 2018. Retrieved 15 February 2018.
- ^A simplified grammar of the Gujarati language by William St. Clair Tisdall (1892)
- ^Gujarati language at Ethnologue (19th ed., 2016)
- ^Ogilvie, Sarah (2009), 'Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World', in Keith Brown (ed.), Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World (1st ed.), Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, ISBN9780080877754
- ^Masica (1991), p. 97.
- ^Snell, R. (2000) Teach Yourself Beginner's Hindi Script. Hodder & Stoughton. pp. 83–86.
- ^Turner (1966), p. 44. Entry 992.
- ^Turner (1966), p. 203. Entry 3856.
- ^Turner (1966), p. 30. Entry 684.
- ^Turner (1966), p. 401. Entry 6969.
- ^Turner (1966), p. 502. Entry 8947.
- ^Turner (1966), p. 706. Entry 12193.
- ^Turner (1966), p. 762. Entry 13173.
- ^Turner (1966), p. 766. Entry 13276.
- ^ abMasica (1991), p. 75.
- ^Platts (1884), p. 776.
- ^Platts (1884), p. 486.
- ^Platts (1884), p. 489.
- ^Platts (1884), p. 305.
- ^Tisdall (1892), p. 168.
- ^Platts (1884), p. 1057.
- ^Platts (1884), p. 653.
- ^Tisdall (1892), p. 170.
- ^Platts (1884), p. 519.
- ^Platts (1884), p. 1142.
- ^Tisdall (1892), p. 160.
- ^Tisdall (1892), p. 177.
- ^Platts (1884), p. 1123.
- ^Tisdall (1892), p. 184.
- ^Platts (1884), p. 471.
- ^Tisdall (1892), p. 172.
- ^Platts (1884), p. 771.
- ^Tisdall (1892), p. 175.
- ^Tisdall (1892), p. 169.
- ^Platts (1884), p. 947.
- ^Masica (1991), p. 71.
- ^Tisdall (1892), p. 15.
- ^Masica (1991), pp. 49–50.
- ^Masica (1991), p. 49.
- ^Masica (1991), p. 73.
- ^Bungalow. Online Etymology Dictionary.
- ^Coolie. Online Etymology Dictionary.
- ^Tank. Online Etymology Dictionary.
- ^Mistry (2001), pp. 276–277.
Bibliography[edit]
- Belsare, M.B. (1904) An etymological Gujarati-English Dictionary.
- Deshpande, P.G. & Parnwell, E.C. (1977) Oxford Picture Dictionary. English-Gujarati. Oxford University Press.
- Mehta, B.N. & Mehta, B.B. (1925) The Modern Gujarati-English Dictionary.
- Suthar, B. (2003) Gujarati-English Learner's Dictionary (1 Mb)
- Turner, Ralph Lilley (1966), A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Languages, London: Oxford University Press.
- Cardona, George (1965), A Gujarati Reference Grammar, University of Pennsylvania Press.
- Tisdall, W.S. (1892), A Simplified Grammar of the Gujarati Language.
- Gajendragadkar, S.N. (1972), Parsi Gujarati, Bombay: University of Bombay.
- Masica, Colin (1991), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN978-0-521-29944-2.
- Mistry, P.J. (1996), 'Gujarati Writing', in Daniels; Bright (eds.), The World's Writing Systems, Oxford University Press.
External links[edit]
Gujarati edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia |
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Gujarati |
Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for Gujarati. |
- Gujarati language at Curlie
- Gujarati language at Encyclopædia Britannica
- Bharatiya Bhasha Jyoti: Gujarati—a textbook for learning Gujarati through Hindi from the Central Institute of Indian Languages.
Map Of Gujarat State In Gujarati
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